They’re less likely to receive that first critical promotion to manager — for every 100 women promoted to manager, 130 men are promoted — and that means fewer women make it onto the leadership track.

In turn, that makes them less likely to be hired into more-senior positions, with the end result being a winnowing of women away from high-level jobs. By the time women make it to senior vice president, they hold only 20 percent of line roles — but line roles are key to promotion: In 2015, 90 percent of new CEOs in the S&P 500 were promoted or hired from line roles.

Related: Women will be paid as much as men ... in 136 years

The study is based on pipeline data and information on human resources practices from 132 companies that employ more than 4.6 million people, including Visa, MetLife, JPMorgan Chase & Co., Procter & Gamble, Facebook and General Motors. In addition, more than 34,000 employees completed a survey designed to explore their experiences regarding gender, opportunity, career and work-life issues.

It may come as a surprise that women negotiate for promotions and raises as often as men. But it won’t surprise any woman to learn that they face pushback when they do. They are 30 percent more likely than men who negotiate to receive feedback that they are “intimidating,” “too aggressive” or “bossy.”

They also don’t get informal feedback as often as men do, even though they ask for it as often as their male counterparts. Add to that the fact that they have less access to senior-level sponsors, and you have a climate that makes women almost three times more likely than men to think their gender will make it harder to get a raise, promotion, or chance to get ahead.

Related: C-suite remains male-dominated

Women of color come in for the toughest road to the top, coming up against the most barriers and the steepest drop-offs with seniority, despite having higher aspirations for becoming a top executive.

They are 9 percent less likely to say they’ve received a challenging new assignment, 21 percent less likely to think the best opportunities go to the most deserving employees and 10 percent less likely to feel comfortable being themselves as work. They’re also more likely to say they have less access to opportunities, and see a workplace that is less fair and inclusive.